Radon Chemical and Physical Properties

Atomic Number: 86 Symbol: Rn Atomic Weight: 222.0176 Discovery: Fredrich Ernst Dorn 1898 or 1900 (Germany), discovered the element and called it radium emanation. Ramsay and Gray isolated the element in 1908 and named it niton. Electron Configuration: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6 Word Origin: from radium. Radon was once called niton, from the Latin word nitens, which means shining Isotopes: At least 34 isotopes of radon are known ranging from Rn-195 to Rn-228. There are no stable isotopes of radon. The isotope radon-222 is the most stable isotope and called thoron and emanates naturally from thorium. Thoron is an alpha-emitter with a half-life of 3.8232 days. Radon-219 is called actinon and emanates from actinium. It is an alpha-emitter with a half-life of 3.96 sec. Properties: Radon has a melting point of -71Â °C, boiling point of -61.8 Â °C, gas density of 9.73 g/l, specific gravity of the liquid state of 4.4 at -62Â °C, specific gravity of the solid state of 4, usually with a valence of 0 (it does form some compounds, however, such as radon fluoride). Radon is a colorless gas at normal temperatures. It is also the heaviest of the gases. When it is cooled below its freezing point it displays a brilliant phosphorescence. The phosphorescence is yellow as the temperature is lowered, becoming orange-red at the temperature of liquid air. Inhalation of radon presents a health risk. Radon build-up is a health consideration when working with radium, thorium, or actinium. It is also a potential issue in uranium mines. Sources: It is estimated that each square mile of soil to a depth of 6 inches contains approximately 1 g of radium, which releases radon to the atmosphere. The average concentration of radon is about 1 sextillion parts of air. Radon naturally occurs in some spring waters. Element Classification: Inert Gas Physical Data Density (g/cc): 4.4 ( -62Â °C) Melting Point (K): 202 Boiling Point (K): 211.4 Appearance: heavy radioactive gas Specific Heat (20Â °C J/g mol): 0.094 Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol): 18.1 First Ionizing Energy (kJ/mol): 1036.5 Lattice Structure: Face-Centered Cubic CAS Registry Number: 10043-92-2 Trivia Ernest Rutherford is sometimes credited with the discovery of radon. He actually discovered the alpha particle radiation given off by radon.Radon became the official name for element 86 in 1923. The IUPAC chose radon from the names radon (Rn), thoron (Tn) and actinon (An). The other two names are given to isotopes of radon. Thoron is Rn-220 and actinon became Rn-219.Other suggested names for radon included radium emanation, niton, extadio, exthorio, exactinio, akton, radeon, thoreon and actineon.The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency lists radon as the second highest cause of lung cancer. References Los Alamos National Laboratory (2001)Crescent Chemical Company (2001)Langes Handbook of Chemistry (1952)CRC Handbook of Chemistry Physics (18th Ed)International Atomic Energy Agency ENSDF database (Oct 2010)

Minimum Wage and Poverty - 1171 Words

Poverty is a significant topic that is being investigated, talked about and most importantly lived in by millions in America. Many American citizens, specifically the children are not only living in poverty, but they are living below the poverty line due to low minimum wage (Gidfar). A child living in poverty can face serious problems in the future. Reducing poverty should not be charity work. As citizens of the world it should be a social responsibility to find a way in which poverty can no longer be a living status, especially for a developed country like America. It is one of the top countries before Mexico with the highest rate of child poverty (Gidfar). In context, minimum wage has a large impact on poverty within a country, as the higher the minimum wage the more disposable income families have access to. The discussion of how the â€Å"elasticity of demand of unskilled workers† determines whether or not the minimum wage should be raised to reduce child poverty is essent ial when validating the relationship between the two variables (Rutkowski 7). While the analysis of William Even and David Macpherson’s study emphasizes the importance of taking employment in to account as a variable as an indication to prevent ‘job loss’ (2), through the clarification that although the United States view child poverty as being an â€Å"intractable problem(WaldFogel 3), there is evidence to support that a raise in the disposable income of families can lead to reduction in child poverty (Dahl andShow MoreRelatedMinimum Wage And Reduce Poverty1864 Words   |  8 PagesValley Technical College 10/01/15 Minimum Wage in America Should the federal government raise the minimum wage to reduce poverty, ensure proper pay, and protect younger generations and minorities? That is a common question discussed in recent years. In 1938 during the Great Depression, President Franklin Roosevelt signed a law creating a federal minimum wage. The federal minimum wage is important to Americans and the government because it keeps workers out of poverty and helps increase consumer purchasingRead MorePoverty And Minimum Wage Is Low4438 Words   |  18 PagesPoverty and minimum wage being low Lakeesha Grass GEN499: General Education Capstone Instructor: Sonja Bethune June 29, 2015 Increasing minimum wage will great be of beneficial to nearly 28 million workers among the nation. It will also insist businesses as well, by increasing the wages this will cause additional money to be in individuals’ pockets, in which they will put back into the economy by purchasing goods and services into their populations. Minimum wage has been a hot seatRead MoreThe Minimum Wage Should Not Reduce Poverty1214 Words   |  5 PagesMillions of Americans live in poverty, unable to find high paying jobs to support themselves and their families. Common belief persists that paying a higher minimum wage would aid in lifting people out of poverty by giving those with low paying jobs a higher income, however the evidence suggests otherwise. As the 2016 race for the White House heats up, the minimum wage battle stands at the forefront of every economic discussion. The rhetoric between candidates within and across party lines intensifiesRead MoreRaising The Minimum Wage Will Redu ce Poverty Essay734 Words   |  3 PagesFurman, Jason, and Sharon Parrot. Raising the Minimum Wage Will Reduce Poverty. Poverty. Ed. Viqi Wagner. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2007. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from A $7.25 Minimum Wage Would Be a Useful Step in Helping Working Families Escape Poverty. www.cbpp.org. 2007. Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 9 Nov. 2015 Jason Furman and Parrot Sharon explain why raising minimum wage will help families. The wage has to be elevated to just the point where a family can actually afford allRead MorePoverty And Minimum Wage ( Temp Title )1431 Words   |  6 Pages11 October 2017 Poverty and minimum wage (temp title) Based on the poverty threshold, or the smallest annual salary required to live as determined by the government, more than forty million people in America live in poverty (â€Å"UC Davis Center for Poverty Research†). That’s forty million people who make less money than the bare minimum required to support themselves or their family. Of those forty million, nineteen and a half million make less than fifty percent of the bare minimum they need to supportRead MoreShould The Minimum Wage Be Reduce Poverty?1807 Words   |  8 Pages abandoning their jobs, and demanding a minimum wage of fifteen dollars per hour. On the surface, pushing the minimum wage up from $7.70 per hour seems the obvious solution, but is a mere Band-Aid on a deep wound. Creating more job opportunities, expanding business productivity, and most importantly, increasing the education and the skill level of workers will end poverty and boost prosperity. Fundamentally, the government should not raise the m inimum wage for workers due to the associated loss ofRead MorePoverty, Social Security Minimum Wage3111 Words   |  13 Pagesexamine the trend and size of poverty in Hong Kong society. Please assess the effectiveness of the present Social Security system and the Minimum wage in eradicating poverty in Hong Kong. Introduction Poverty has been a hot issue in Hong Kong for several years. Several policies developed form the Social Security system have been adopted by the government for soothing this problem, such as the CSSA scheme and the MPF fund. Nevertheless, it seems that the poverty problem is getting worse. VoicesRead MoreMinimum Wage Does Not Impact The Poverty Rate600 Words   |  3 PagesMinimum Wage Does Not Impact The Poverty Rate The Working Poor Gain Little Other than Protection In the 1930’s, during his second term as president, Franklin Roosevelt fought for and constructed many versions of legislation to end the exploitation of women and children. Finally on October 24, 1938 the Fair Labor Standards Act became effective. The Act limited the hired workers to be no less than sixteen, the work week to no more than forty hours and the minimum wage to be twenty-five cents anRead MoreMinimum Wage Increase And The Effects On Family Poverty1921 Words   |  8 PagesMinimum wage has been a topic that has caused mixed feelings from all parts of the United States and other countries and it continues to be a topic of interest to many. There are some that feel minimum wage it is not high enough to survive, while others feel if minimum wage is raised, so will the cost of goods, such as food, housing and cost of living in general, resulting in no change regardless of increase. There are many families that are living off minimum wage and can barely survive on i t.Read More Put An End To Poverty, Increase The Minimum Wage Essay2550 Words   |  11 PagesIt is not shocking to hear that tens of millions of Americans are living in poverty. Startling statistics about the poor are constantly being tossed around on television with images of run-down neighborhoods and malnourished children. The real surprise, however, is that millions of those in poverty are full-time, minimum wage earning workers. Many say one should feel morally obligated to help these people. President Barack Obama said it best in his February 2013 State of the Union address

State Of New York Vs Draftkings And Fanduel - 2314 Words

State of New York vs DraftKings and FanDuel Introduction Since the inception of fantasy sports companies, very few industries have grown this significantly in such a short time span. Since the surge in popularity of daily fantasy betting FanDuel and DraftKings have launched aggressive efforts to expand in order to reach the 51 million current fantasy sports users in the US and Canada alone. Although approximately 38% of Americans admitted to betting on sports in 2008, fantasy sports companies are also experiencing increased scrutiny from state regulators. Criticism stems from the belief that daily fantasy sports betting is considered to be online gambling and therefore should be illegal or heavily regulated at the state level. Multiple†¦show more content†¦FanDuel and DraftKings specialize in allowing clients to select sports teams or players to place in a lineup. Contestants then pay a participation fee to compete with other customers in order to win a large prize. The fantasy sports providers make a profit by taking a 9% margin of initial fees collected from costumers and awarding the rest of the funds to the winners. Although the federal government does not consider the activities of fantasy sports betting as gambling, 11 states currently deem it illegal and 20 more states are currently evaluating the legality of daily fantasy betting. The significance of this case stems from the fact that New York state is the largest market for both FanDuel and DraftKings. With 600,000 customers in the state and $200 million in entry fees last year alone, both daily fantasy companies are extremely vested in winning this case and have appealed the injunction. Daily fantasy sports companies argue that the attorney general hasn’t properly evaluated the assertion that fantasy betting requires a material degree of skill rather than luck. Legal Case Arguments Based on the attorney general’s accusations, the verdict of the ongoing case will largely be determined by the definition of gambling in the state of New York Law and whether the service provided by Draftkings and FanDuel constitute gambling. According to New York Penal Law 225.00: â€Å"A person engages in gambling when he stakes or risks

Essay Double Lives in Victorian Literature - 1407 Words

The existence of a â€Å"dark double† abounds in many literary works of the Victorian Era. These â€Å"dark doubles† are able to explore the forbidden and repressed desires of the protagonist, and often represent the authors own rebellion against inhibitions in a morally straight-laced societal climate. The â€Å"dark doubles† in these stories are able to explore the socially unacceptable side of human nature, and it is through these â€Å"dark doubles† that many of the main characters (and through them, the reader), are able to vicariously explore and experience the illicit, forbidden, and often exciting underbelly of what was considered deviant behavior. The accepted â€Å"normal† behavior that strict Victorian social protocol†¦show more content†¦For most of the play, Jack is Jack, not Ernest, and when the lies and deceit finally catch up to Jack, who needs to make his â€Å"brother† Ernest disappear, and at the same time, become a man named Ernest, one feels both amused and confused at the hypocrisy surrounding these strange events. Wildes implications are clear when we discover that Jacks real Christian name is in fact Ernest John. Although Jack felt societal pressure to create the persona of Ernest, they are still the same man, having to hide his identity while fulfilling hidden desires does not change that. The irony here is that Jack needed Ernest, or at least the name of Ernest, to exist in order to achieve the respectable, socially acceptable life that the â€Å"good† side of his persona aspires too. Like much of Wildes work, the play ends on a witty and humorous note, with Jack telling his beloved Gwendolen, â€Å" it is a terrible thing for a man to find out suddenly that all his life he has been speaking nothing but the truth† (720). Jack understands the hypocrisy he has tried to undermine by becoming Ernest while in London, that by pretending to have this irresponsible and unsavory brother, he has flaunted the hypocrisy of the Victorian social structure and has also become a hypocrite himself. His â€Å"dark double†, Ernest, has allowed him to relinquish the responsibilities of his life as a properShow MoreRelatedThe Influence Of Victorian Society On Relationships And Marriage1642 Words   |  7 PagesThe Influence of Victorian Society on Relationships and Marriage Marriage was of utmost importance during the 1830’s to the 1900’s. The â€Å"ideal† relationship had been searched for by both men and women using the standards that the commonwealth had created. When reading Oscar Wilde’s â€Å"The Importance of Being Earnest† and associating it to society’s expectations for both genders throughout the Victorian era, people are depicted as being very effected and influenced by the set rules and boundaries.Read MoreThe Strange Case Of Dr. Jekyll And Mr. Hyde : Literary Review1515 Words   |  7 Pagespoverty, and labor issues. The Victorian novel allows those who had access to them discover and focus on moral issues with society. Among the novel that were created during the era, the genre of a gothic novella emerged. Well knowns gothic novellas included Frankenstein, The Picture of Dorian Gray, and The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Robert Stevenson’s gothic novella The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde introduces several themes that reflect the Victorian society. The novella can beRead MoreOscar Wilde’S The Importance Of Being Earnest Was Written1600 Words   |  7 Pagesmovement previously: Victorian/Realism. Wilde suggests that keeping up appearances was so significant during the Victorian ages that men engaged in bunburying: the idea that people take on a different persona, whether real or imagined, as an escape from their current life or in order to portray themselves in a better light. Wilde uses satirical humor in The Importance of Being Earnest to reveal his disdain at the hypocritical customs and shallow lives of the Victorian people; in particularRead MoreThe Importance Of Being Earnest By Oscar Wilde1293 Words   |  6 PagesTyreece Lockhart Ms. Mabry British Literature 9 May 2015 Little Secrets The life of the Victorian people was a time in which people were prude because of their repression. Many of the people of that time had a lot of pent-up emotions, there was a time and a place for something and it solemn did any good for anyone, depending on your class you had to have a curtain way of carrying yourself, many of which was not the must enjoyable of ways and lacked some fun that many need in their life. This forcedRead MoreAnalysis Of Tipping The Velvet By Sarah Waters1475 Words   |  6 Pagesrepresentations. Specifically looking at this representation in Tipping the Velvet by Sarah Waters a Neo-Victorian fiction novel, Analysing how the performance and act of a male impersonation is created represented and how the act is received. Neo –Victorian literature is most commonly seen as contemporary fiction or culture, which is usually set between 1837 and 1901- during the Victorian era, or it is highly influenced by this period. In the years that followed 1901 and up until this very dayRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe and the Search for the American Identity1321 Words   |  6 Pagestowards a unique American disposition by creating a double consiousness, one representing European values and the other American values. [journey showing from euro to transition to american readers acan clearly see the struggel in poes writings or hw he transitions from euro tp american voice] Before and after independance, Americans relied heavily on the British and their influences. These influences, such as the values and morals of Victorian society, could be seen in the northern cities as wellRead MoreFeminism In The Handmaids Tale1709 Words   |  7 Pagesseveral years after Canadian women’s suffrage had begun occurring in 1918, was inspired by the American suffrage movements in history to create the society seen in The Handmaid’s Tale (Hill). 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Specifically, Stevenson portrays exactly how Victorian social life commenced as well asRead Moreâ€Å"The picture of Dorian Gray† Oscar Wilde- Born on 16th of October in 1854, Oscar Wilde would700 Words   |  3 PagesWestland Row, Dublin. Wilde was born into a Anglo-Irish family, as he would blossom Wilde became fluent in French and German. Wilde studied at the Trinity College in Dublin, while studying Wilde obtained a distinct interest in Greek literature. Concluding his study of literature for 9 years he was eventually accepted to the Magdalen College in Oxford in 1878. After graduating Wilde moved to Paris where he would meet a woman named Constance Lloyd, who would become his wife on May 24th, 1884. With yearsRead MoreWomen In Victorian Era Essay1347 Words   |  6 PagesDuring the Victorian era, women were viewed as the very opposite of what a man ought to be. In the words of John Stuart Mill, who published a criticism of the way society differentiated between males and females The female sex was brought up to believe that its ‘ideal of character’ was the very opposite to that of men’s ‘not self-will , and government by self-control, but submission, and yielding to the control of others to live for others; to make complete abnegation of themselves, and to have

Proffessional Ethics Free Essays

string(118) " document is bound to be more meaningful, and find higher levels of acceptance, if employees are part of the process\." Professional ethics has become more important over the years. As we become more specialized in our occupation, the issues become that much more complex – and hard. Professional people and those working in acknowledged professions exercise specialist knowledge and skill. We will write a custom essay sample on Proffessional Ethics or any similar topic only for you Order Now How the use of this knowledge should be governed when providing a service to the public can be considered a moral issue and is termed professional ethics. They must complete their job according to the moral values. Professionals are capable of making judgments, applying their skills and reaching informed decisions in situations that the general public cannot, because they have not received the relevant training. One of the earliest examples of professional ethics is probably the Hippocratic oath to which medical still adhere to this day. Professional ethics is a set of standards adopted by a professional community. Professional ethics are regulated by standards, which are often referred to as codes of ethics. The code of ethics is very important because it gives us boundaries that we have to stay within in our professional careers. The one problem with the code of ethics is that we can’t always have the answers. Professional bodies have increasingly been at work developing, revising and refining professional codes of ethics. Professionals themselves ask for more detailed codes so as to have greater guidance. There is no longer a deference to the authority of experts on the part of the public or of the client group. Professional ethics helps a professional choose what to do when faced with a problem at work that raises a moral issue. One can certainly study what professionals do when faced with such problems, and confine the enquiry to the description. Our concern here, however, is to assist with making choices – an approach called prescriptive professional ethics. Obviously one can be unethical without behaving illegally. It is a common rationalization of unethical behaviour to say â€Å"well, it wasn’t illegal, so who cares? †. It is perhaps the major point of professional ethics, though, to deal with scenarios that do not involve illegality. Professional ethics covers far more issues than the law does. Many of the issues are imbedded in messy and complex factual situations, so ethical issues tend to be harder to identify than legal issues. We should have more sympathy when someone says they were confused or ignorant or thoughtless about a moral issue, as opposed to a legal problem. How does one recognize a moral problem within professional ethics? Is the issue one of â€Å"right† or â€Å"wrong† action? Is the issue one of â€Å"good† or â€Å"bad† motives, methods or goals? Is there a â€Å"value† at stake? Is the terminology not descriptive, but prescriptive, involving words like â€Å"should†, â€Å"ought to†? We do a much better job of identifying issues in professional ethics if we are sensitive to the principles and values set out in our professional codes of ethics (that is one of their benefits – an educational function). It helps to have lists of issues available to contemplate. It is a curse of the twentieth century to speak of ethics as being subjective or relative – â€Å"it’s all a matter of personal opinion†. Moral relativism is ultimately futile and nihilistic. There can be no real debate, guidance, judgement or resolution. Those claiming relativism are usually in a position of self-rationalization. Moral absolutism is not a tenable position either, as it leads to inflexibility and a harshness that creates its own injustices. Most major corporations, and many smaller companies, now have Codes of Ethics, along with a range of other, issue-specific ethics documents. Such a document embodies the ethical commitments of your organization; it tells the world who you are, what you stand for, and what to expect when conducting business with you. Therefore, there are 2 important processes in forming this law: ) Objective There has been a dramatic increase in the ethical expectations of businesses and professions over the past ten years. Increasingly, customers, clients and employees are deliberately seeking out those who define the basic ground rules of their operations on a day to day Why have a Code of Ethics? †¢ To define accepted/acceptable behaviours; †¢ To promote high standards of practice; â₠¬ ¢ To provide a benchmark for members to use for self evaluation; †¢ To establish a framework for professional behaviour and responsibilities; †¢ As a vehicle for occupational identity; As a mark of occupational maturity;† Different kinds of documents serve different purposes. Is your new document intended to  guide  people or to set out requirements? Is it really a Code of Ethics that you need? You might consider creating a Statement of Values, a Policy, a Mission Statement or a Code of Conduct. Ideally, a code of ethics should be tailored to the needs and values of your organization. Ask yourself, what makes your Code specific to your organization? Is there anything that differentiates it from similar documents devised other firms in your field, or in other fields? If not, what makes it your Code, other than the fact that your logo is at the top? Your Code should make clear who within your organization will be governed by it. Does it cover everyone from the mailroom through to the boardroom? Only senior managers? Who has to sign off on it? Keep in mind that lower-level employees may not take very seriously a document that senior managers either aren’t bound by, or take lightly Many ethics codes have two components. First, an  aspirational  section, often in the preamble, that outlines what the organization aspires to, or the ideals it hopes to live up to. Second, an ethics code will typically list some  rules or principles, which members of the organization will be expected to adhere to. In order to ensure the objective of the law will be reached, it is important to get the people who will be guided by the code be actively involved in writing it. If your organization is too large to get everyone involved, consider selecting representatives from various departments or various business units. The document is bound to be more meaningful, and find higher levels of acceptance, if employees are part of the process. You read "Proffessional Ethics" in category "Papers" It’s a good idea to consult key stakeholders – including, for example, customers, suppliers, and local community groups – as to what they think should be in your Code. This will help reveal what important external constituencies see as your key obligations, and will help make sure that the Code you write deals with the full range of issues that might confront your organization. 2) Planning After you have reached the objective of the code, you must make proper planning so that the code can be formed and implemented on the time stipulated by your organization’s management. How will the Code be implemented? Once it’s written, will it gather dust, or will it influence policy and practice? What procedures are in place to make sure that writing a Code is more than just organizational navel-gazing? An effective implementation scheme (perhaps as an appendix to the Code) will explain to all concerned how the values embodied in your Code will be put into practice. You must also plan for education. It is a key aspect of implementation has to be employee training and education. How will employees be educated about the Code? A Code can only be effective if your employees know about it. Will new employees receive training regarding the Code’s requirements? Will current employees receive refresher courses? Especially for large organizations, the steps required to train employees on the requirements of a Code deserve special attention. Other than that, you must also be clear about enforcement. How, if at all, will the Code be enforced? Are there specific penalties for violating the Code, or is the Code merely there to provide guidance? Who will decide when an employee has violated the Code – will that be up to the employees’ immediate supervisor, or will that be the exclusive domain of senior managers? Last but not least, you must specify a sunset date. When will the code be reviewed and updated? Times change, and new issues come to light, so consider specifying a date for revising and refreshing your Code. What is the role of a professional code of ethics? It helps clarify values and rules, it strengthens group identity and collegiality, it fosters public confidence, and it can be used as a framework for discipline. The â€Å"audience† is the public, employers, clients, and fellow professionals. A code of ethics can be inspirational, educational, a tool for decision-making and a reference point. One can also criticize over reliance on a code of ethics. It can instil complacency (â€Å"we’re ethical because we have a code of ethics†). If it isn’t used or enforced, the suspicion may be it’s there simply to polish the group’s public image or to bolster a professional monopoly. It must be said that a code of ethics doesn’t create ethics and it is not really possible to completely codify ethics. Collateral education is necessary to bring a code of ethics alive. Most professional ethics cases have to do with conflicts. A moral dilemma is a conflict. We may have a clash between risk to human life and property interests, or a clash between risk to human life and risk to the environment. However, a common type of conflict is a â€Å"conflict of interest†. This usually refers to a conflict between one’s professional duties and one’s personal interests. As mentioned above, these case may not be true moral dilemmas, although they may be painful to resolve. A â€Å"bad faith† decision by a professional can involve the use of one’s position or powers to obtain a personal benefit – the powers or position have been used for a purpose other than for which they were granted. Sometimes there is an overlap with the law. It is a criminal offence to receive a â€Å"secret commission†. The protection of property is often denigrated as a value. It compares poorly with â€Å"human life†. We have already seen in the Burgess and Mullen study that â€Å"economic pressure† was the most common reason for ethical misbehaviour. It is an issue that the professional must guard against in his her own decision making, as well as an issue to watch for in others. Others will not go along because of the cost (a property interest). When risk to life is high, there is little doubt which way we should go. Where there is resistance, the professional has a duty to be honest and forceful and not to â€Å"go along†. Someone else may have the authority to make the decision and they then assume the liability, ethically and legally. Where the person in authority is unreasonable and dishonest, the situation may cry out for â€Å"whistleblowing† on the part of the professional. This should first take the form of â€Å"internal whistleblowing† as in an obvious case, some other senior person will see the light. On occasion, the external authorities must be called. A professional has less job security than a non-professional, and it is self imposed. The right thing to do is to withdraw services, but such cases should be very rare. Many codes of ethics refer to relations with colleagues. It is useful to distinguish between duties to the profession as an institution and duties to professional colleagues. They are not the same. What does it mean to say that the professional will not bring the profession into disrepute? If the efforts of colleagues will be undermined by a general loss of reputation and credibility resulting from personal misconduct of an individual, the wrong-doer may be doing far more harm indirectly than directly. The issue is not, as some might believe, a loss of income, prestige or position of colleagues, it is a reduction in the protection to the client group or public that is the harm done. Professionals must be vigilant that they are not protecting their self-interest when the profession is attacked or its reputation impugned, but are protecting the interests of others. As for relations with colleagues on an individual basis, a professional is required to be cooperative, respectful, supportive, helpful, open-minded as well as open, and without blatant or crude competition. Competition is good, but it must be meritocratic and honest. And it is of the essence of professionalism that discipline is maintained. It is an essential element of professionalism, and it is often referred to directly in codes of ethics, that one must engage in professional development throughout one’s career. The idea of continuous improvement in professional knowledge and skills is actually implicit in the standard of the reasonable peer. There is a duty to take courses, read the literature, attend conferences, and so on. Many professional groups encourage (if not enforce) this through mandatory â€Å"maintenance points† – you can lose your designation if you cannot show upgrading over time. Many codes refer to â€Å"integrity† as a value – â€Å"maintain the highest standards of integrity†. It seems vague at first. Integrity means a consistency in commitment to moral commitments. Integrity  is a concept of  consistency  of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and  truthfulness  or  accuracy  of one’s actions. Integrity can be regarded as the opposite of hypocrisy,  in that integrity regards internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs. The word â€Å"integrity† stems from the Latin adjective  integer  (whole, complete). In this context, integrity is the inner sense of â€Å"wholeness† deriving from qualities such as  honesty  and consistency of  character. As such, one may judge that others â€Å"have integrity† to the extent that they act according to the values, beliefs and principles they claim to hold. A  value system’s  abstraction depth  and range of applicable interaction may also function as significant factors in identifying integrity due to their congruence or lack of congruence with observation. A value system may evolve over time  while retaining integrity if those who espouse the values account for and resolve inconsistencies. Commitment to commitments means one’s moral character must be consistent, whole and integrated. You don’t have â€Å"integrity† if you are committed to conflicting standards or values. Your behaviour would become erratic and inconsistent. Integrity is related to other values, such as honesty. To be true to a system of values, one must be honest. A person with integrity will admit errors, refrain from false pretences and advise clients truthfully. Integrity is related to promise keeping – one must follow through on promises. A professional should be careful about what is promised. If you can’t deliver on your promises, your integrity is said to be jeopardized. Integrity is also related to loyalty – loyalty to one’s profession, the goals of the profession, loyalty to the employer’s goals. Loyalty should not be blind, however, and so other values may be in conflict with loyalty if the employer’s goals are not in themselves worthy in the circumstances. Do remember that a code of ethics will not solve all ethical problems. But we must remember that good laws, if they are not obeyed, do not constitute good government. Hence there are two parts of good government; one is the actual obedience of citizens to the laws, the other part is the goodness of the laws which they obey. (2567 words) REFERENCES: 1) C. A. Brincat and V. S. Wike, Morality and the Professional Life: Values at Work. Prentice Hall Inc. , (2000). 2) Pamela S. Lewis, Stephen H. Goodman, Patricia M. Fandt, Management Challenges for Tomorrow’s Leaders, 4th Edition, Thomson, South Western. (2004) 3) Chris MacDonald, Ph. D. – Gene Marks, ed. , Streetwise Small Business Book of Lists, Adams Media 2006. How to cite Proffessional Ethics, Papers

Integrating Care and Justice Moral Development Persuasive Essay Example For Students

Integrating Care and Justice: Moral Development Persuasive Essay Part One:The criticisms of Kohlbergs moral development stages seem to center around three major points, his research methods, the regression of stage four, and finally his goals. The first criticism that I would like to address is that of his research methods. Kohlberg is often criticized for not only his subject selection, but also the methods by which he tries to extricate data from those subjects. His initial study consisted of school boys from a private institution in Chicago. The problem with this is fairly obvious, that this does not represent a significant portion of the population to allow for generalized conclusions. In other words, how can we test some boys from Chicago and ascertain that this is how all people develop worldwide?I believe that the answer to this criticism comes from the theory that it relates to. Kohlbergs moral development schema is highly dependent upon the idea that there are fundamental truths that cannot be dismissed. These ideas are in the ether, wound into the very fabric that constructs human nature. Granted, his descriptions of the various stages also seem very dependent upon the surroundings and social institutions that an individual would be subjected to. Yet these institutions would be have to be built upon people, all of whom would share these ideological truths. It seems fairly obvious that all people have undeniable needs, survival and some group membership. Kohlbergs stages are merely methods by which one could fulfill these needs. For instance, Spartan societies were adamant about maintaining the purity and strength of the civilization. Citizens saw no wrong in exposing a sick or lame baby to the elements so that it might die. Surely an act of cruelty today, but in that society, a necessary evil The prosperity and wealth of the whole was of greater importance than that of the individual.In addition to these justifications, additional research substantiated Kohlbergs claims. Different subjects were tested, from all ages and regions, and the same conclusions were drawn from the data. Assuming that these conclusions are correct, and the data leads to the same interpretation, is there any other possibility? This argument seems most impressive, especially considering the differences between people that are evident in everyday life. Similarities on such an abstract level must be supportive of Kohlbergs claims. Another criticism of Kohlberg assumes that his subjects are biased, but proposes that his methods are even worse. To get the perspective of another person, he confronts them with seemingly impossible, unrealistic, and confrontational dilemmas. I, myself, had trouble with the Heinz dilemma because of my inability to believe that it was something that could take place in the real world. Even more so, the situation was something that was very foreign, and very hard to relate to. Anyone who has contemplated something very life changing, like a death in the family, then experienced it, understands how different it is to actually be faced with the dilemma. When theorizing, it is hard to maintain the intimate connection needed to truly react to a moral dilemma. My defense of this situation comes from a lack of a suitable alternative. True moral dilemmas are not only rare, but extremely hard to document. When faced with a situation that demands not only ones complete attention, but emotional vigor, it is really hard to find time to document or discuss feelings (let alone the motivation to do so!). For example, looking at the Heinz dilemma, it would be very hard to explain why one was chasing a man around while he tried to find a cure for his dying wife. An even less enticing alternative would be trying to sit him down and discuss how he was feeling.So, the only proper and effective way to get a response is to propose a hypothetical situation, and document replies. It may not elicit the pure data that one desires, but according to the Heisenberg principle, it is impossible to measure anything without influencing it. Some research methods indicate that it is more important to follow ones thoughts through the reasoning process, rather than just asking for possible solutions. However, I have to believe, and justify from personal experience, that people have incredibly low attention spans. Asking someone to explain how they think through a decision is almost as likely to yield useful data as asking them to volunteer their PIN numbers. It seems as though people are able not only to be influenced, but to influence themselves into making different decisions. This can lead to the endless circle conversation. The criticism that I find most interesting is the supposed regression that occurs when going from stage three to four. Personally, I must agree with the idea that it is, in fact, a priority change. I also believe that this comes from my undeniable faith in the goodness of humanity. I would like to believe that in their heart and soul, everyone is good natured. So, to see that one must develop stage four is disappointing.Yet, I will agree that it is necessary. It is a comprehensive step, and an improvement from the stage three point of view. No matter how enticing and supposedly noble stage three appears, it is lacking components necessary to promote the functionality of the person who holds it. A loss of innocence is not necessarily a detriment, especially when considering personal experience. Skin tends to thicken as one gets older. Therefore, is it necessarily a regression that someone would tend to trust others less, and be more interested maintaining social institutions? I believe that this in no way represents a regression, but rather a broadened scope and interpretation of surroundings. At level three, you are totally interested in fulfilling the obligations that are expected of you. The world seems a very small place, one person and your surroundings, people, places, and things. If the requirements that are expected from day to day, from people who are very close to you can be fulfilled, that is the absolute goal. As one grows older, you are exposed to more of the institutions and methods that are integral to the relationship and interaction of all people. The rules have changed. There are more requirements, more expected of you. Unfortunately, every person does not have limitless resources with which to meet all of these goals. So, priorities must change. New social institutions now appear to be the driving force in happiness and security. So, they now encompass all the priorities that drove a person at stage three. To fulfill the previous stages goals with this new scope, one must dedicate resources to it. Finally, I would like to discuss Kohlbergs point of view when considering what I call his goals. Some have criticized that Kohlberg is trying to objectify morality to a Natural Law, or justice perspective. Although he does seem to abstract characteristics to a societal level, I do not believe that his is an honest attempt to undermine the gathered data integrity. In other words, although it seems he is drawing the same conclusions over and over, he is not distorting it to do so. Kohlberg is often criticized for a libertarian ideological bias in his conclusions of gathered data. In addition, it has been observed that his conclusions are carefully explained, argued and defended, but they can be twisted and contorted to fit any range of different opinions. They mandate an agreement to social contract, that being used as a philosophical base from which moral guidelines are built. But social systems differ from region to region, and within regions by people. I believe that the criticisms themselves do not harm Kohlbergs views, but rather enforce them. As I have discussed before, there are undeniable personal needs that every individual works to fulfill, regardless of stated motives. Everyone needs to survive, and to be emotionally fulfilled by belonging. The systems by which people administer their interaction are simply tools by which they meet those needs. However, I have also said that I have a flawless devotion to the goodness of mankind. Thereby, I believe that people are trying to better their situation relative to one another and the situation of society as a whole. Kohlberg may view these moral ideals as too socially interactive, but isnt that what the true goal of any of this is? People truly feel good when they have met their desires, and one of those is to exist with other people in a cohesive social system. As unbelievable as it may sound, Kohlbergs findings do not represent distorted data, but rather the incredible coincidence that all people, on some level, are inherently similar.It would be unfair to try to enforce the ideas that come with Kohlbergian justice without also defending Carol Gilligans theme of caring. Therefore, I would like to address three criticisms: the paradox of self-care, the idea that care is a regressive movement, and finally, the seemingly huge jump from stage one to two. I personally find the self-care characteristic of caring to be the most interesting to discuss. During class sessions, everyone seemed most interested with this perspective. It seems as though it is the ethical issue that plagues society. Where does the balance lie between seeking to fulfill ones own interests, and meeting the requirements placed upon one by others? I believe that we all recognize a need to initialize and solidify a healthy caring for oneself before it is possible to be outwardly caring for others. However, the way that this method is proposed makes it appear as though it might be a cop-out. My perspective comes from the fact that there is no really appropriate way to show self-care without seeming self-centered. No matter how little one dedicates to oneself, no matter what the circumstances, someone will see it as too much. Yet, there is no effective way to show compassion, respect, or contentment with the outside world without first developing all of these attributes within oneself. When constructing this self-persona, the goal is not to become conceited, but rather to develop a foundation upon which more complex interactions can be constructed. Of course, any well intentioned act can be construed into something that it is not. I truly believe that this is the case when critiquing self-care.I would also like to argue that self-care as a whole is not what it seems to be, nor is it what its name implies. Rather, it is a competence at a certain level personal and societal development. At earlier times in ones life, the easiest way to contribute to surroundings is to not harm them. For instance, it would not be expected of a toddler to assist in the preparation of dinner. The best that he could hope to do is not destroy anything! At this level of development adequacy is defined by not harming something, not necessarily working towards its betterment. Stephen Hawking Essay The survival of that society is supreme, since it is the chosen protector of all these familial microcosms. Laws, rules and regulations take over for individualistic judgement, helping to herd everyone into the proper behavior.With this new system, we obviously lose some of the aspects of stage three that were most attractive. We no longer have the family dedicated, honor above-all-else person that we did in the previous stage. He has been replaced with someone who is now, at best, a law abiding citizen. The principles of stage three have been incorporated, though not fully, into the pragmatism of stage four. For instance, a lawless or unconventional act that would not have been tolerated at stage three would be ignored at stage four so that the integrity of the social system would not be compromised. We lose the hardcore justice orientation, and replace it with a more flexible society-inclusive system. Increasing the size of anything to encompass more increases its complexity. Complexity means that this system is not only hard to maintain, but increasingly slow to acquiesce to the changing needs of the people. It takes a lot of time to change an entire societys interpretations. Status-quo stagnation occurs very quickly, and reform seemingly takes forever. So, imagine that we could take stage four, plop in into a blender, add some stage three, and come out with an even better system. What would we do? This is the next question to be addressed. Looking at stage threes and stage fours adequacies and areas of lacking, we need to incorporate pieces of both into an entirely new system. The real goal is to somehow take stage threes interpersonal nobility and faith, and give them to a stage four person. At the same time, we do not want to undermine the societal interactiveness of stage four! I believe that what we end up with is the theoretical model of a democracy. For instance, we take stage fours society agreed upon contract (assuming that it is somewhat noble, as opposed to something from the Third Reich). We now assume that an act has been committed that borders between criminality and unconventionalism. How could we approach this? Stage three says: If it isnt a threat to my immediate person, or those who surround me, then dont worry about it. Stage four would reply: What of its effect on the social system, is it against the law? What we really need to do is combine the two perspectives. If this act is first viewed to warrant public action (an arrest, trial, or hearing), then that should be the course of action. It is what takes place next that is very important. During the proceedings, each and every person must come to terms with it in their own way. They must decide if it is destructive, constructive, or indifferent. As a group, they must decide on the best course of action. This way we have incorporated the individualistic judgement and nobility of each person and fused it with societal administration. In addition, we have allowed each person to place part of their own golden rule interpretation into the system. By carefully combining the features of two very different stages, we have come up with a system that is better suited to meeting the needs of a population. Unfortunately, it was invented hundreds of years ago, and implemented in the United States Constitution. Granted, it does not work perfectly, but it seems a suitable compromise when considering the alternatives. It may be a slow process, and one that can be abused to fit ones needs, but it is the only one that incorporates the individual into the molding of the system. The final part of this paper will be dedicated to the combination of two very different arenas of thought, the moral development paths of justice and care. Some have argued for and against each, some have argued for and against both. What we will try to do is to build an entirely new moral system on the strengths of these two. Theoretically, we should come up with a super-competent solution, one that is better than the two individually. Rather than try to develop this step by step and point by point (which would be intolerable after about the second line), Id like to just give my interpretation of what the final product would look like. One note: the most that can be possibly asked of any person in any system is that they give 100 percent all the time. Therefore, any theorizing that we do is subject to the fact that people only have the resources to accomplish certain things. To combine the best features of two diametrically different institutions of thought we have to first identify what those features are. Kohlbergian justice is the pragmatic, society oriented variety that is admittedly dedicated to preserving social systems. Gilligans caring is predicated on good interaction between people. Although they sound like they might be trying to achieve the same things, they are going at it in two separate ways. Kohlberg wants to invent a system by which all people know what is expected of them. Rules are proposed, agreed upon, set down, and enforced. Each and every person knows what is appropriate behavior. Even at stage five, the supposed highest known stage of Kohlbergs development, the society rates very high. There may be different ways to approach running a society, but there is no question that there must be something running it. Gilligan seems to agree that people need rules by which they can relate to one another. However, she seems to delve deeper into the actual motivations of those rules. While obeying the regulations of society, you must also show some sort of compassion and caring for other people. As a trivial example, Kohlbergs system would say that it was rude to interrupt someone who is speaking. Gilligan would say that merely not interrupting is not adequate. Instead, you must show interest in what that person is trying to say. You must somehow relate with the speaker on some level. In doing so, you not only draw more from his words, but you show that you can identify with him. Another feature of Gilligans work that I feel should be integrated into the justice theme is that of self-care. When put down in words it seems somewhat egotistical and self-centered. Kohlberg would be interested in self-care only if it contributed to maintaining society. But balancing the needs of the many, and the needs of the few is the hardest part about effectively administering any group of people. Some individuals will have very menial needs, others will say they require luxuries. The key is to provide a method by which all people can fulfill those needs. Self-care will differ significantly between even similar people. So, rather than trying to meet their needs outright, it is better to just provide a chance by which they can provide for themselves. Thus achieving a balance between self-care and still allotted care for others. (I know, Im drawing the democracy parallelism again, sorry!) Kohlberg provides us with the minimal framework by which regulations maintain the necessities of people. If his guidelines are followed, it can be said that everyone who lives by them will be at least partially satisfied. Gilligan, on the other hand, shows us that there is a much deeper level to which we can all aspire. Putting effort into everyday interaction, from talking to listening, can greatly enhance every experience. In doing so, we are not only improving the quality of our own lives, but also the lives of those we interact with. Another aspect of caring that I would like to bring into the justice world is included in level three, the highest level of caring. It states that there are absolutely no black or white issues. What might be correct for one person, is not necessarily the same for another. This would fill a huge hole in the Kohlberg moral development system. Justice is largely criticized because it forces everyone into a social group. It then slaps some rules down, and expects that they are applicable to everyone. Gilligan states that this is not true, but rather, everything is a shade of gray. Be careful though! This does not mean that rules are now not applicable to anyone. Rather, it states that we must use our judgement when considering transgressions of the law. There may be special circumstances that need to be addressed. Finally, Kohlbergs critics have said that stage five is too arbitrary. It is not easy to tell exactly how much one owes to the social contract, or what to do with people who do not necessarily agree with it. Gilligan would argue that there is a way to resolve this conflict of interests through dialogue, attention, and compromise. Where Kohlbergs system leave opportunity for arbitration, Gilligans says that there is no need. Instead of giving people a hard set of rules to live by, or demanding their surrender to a contract, we could talk to them individually and address the situation. At the same time, justice maintains that there are undeniable rules that must be obeyed. So, we are combining the best of both worlds. Using Kohlbergs justice orientation, we are guaranteeing the sanctity of all those who have already agreed to the social contract. Concurrently, were taking it upon ourselves to listen to a non-supportive person, and possibly come to a small compromise to fit their needs. In conclusion, it seems that there is definitely a way to combine the Kohlberg justice theme and the Gilligan caring theme of moral development. Mr. Kohlberg provides a method to police a society that does not include 100 percent utopian citizens. Ms. Gilligan gives us the ability to relate to each and every person, as a person. She indicates ways that we can identify with their perspectives, understand their needs, and compromise. Although the real world seems infinitely more complex than either of these models, they bear a frightening resemblance to real societies and real people. Maybe someday, a perfect model will be constructed, judged by a perfect path of moral development. Until then, I hope that I have found a good combination of these two ideas. One last side note: I think I could spend weeks typing a paper on this subject. There are thousands of facets of each system that could fit into the others potential flaws. However, I think Ive been long-winded enough as it is. I have tried to make my points as succinct and reasonable as possible, but without sacrificing exactly what I wanted to say. Thank you for your patience.